Urban agriculture

Urban Agriculture and Peri-Urban Agriculture is the practice of cultivating, processing and distributing food in, or around , a village, town or city (peri-urban).^[1]

Urban farming is generally practiced for income-earning or food-producing activities though in some communities the main impetus is recreation and relaxation. Urban agriculture contributes to food security and food safety in two ways: first, it increases the amount of food available to people living in cities, and, second, it allows fresh vegetables and fruits and meat products to be made available to urban consumers. A common and efficient form of urban agriculture is the biointensive method. Because urban agriculture promotes energy-saving local food production, urban and peri-urban agriculture are generally seen as sustainable practices.

The recognition of environmental degradation within cities through the relocation of resources to serve urban populations has inspired the implementation of different schemes of urban agriculture across the developed and developing world. From historic models such as Machu Picchu to designs for new productive urban farms, the idea of locating agriculture in the city takes on many characteristics.

Crop alteration

Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses (known as glasshouses or hothouses in some areas) and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year towards the continued effort of improvement. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray an ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.^[31][32]

For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variation in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).

After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were more resistant to mechanical handling. These varieties have been criticized as being harder and having poor texture. More recently, genetic engineering has begun to be employed in large parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. One widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate, a non-systemic (i.e kills all plants) chemical used to control weeds in a crop such as oilseed rape. Normally, expensive systemic herbicides would have to be applied to kill the weeds without harming the crop. Relatively cheap and safe glyphosate may be applied to the modified crops, efficiently killing weeds without harming the resistant crop. Another modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f. Starlink). This, in contrast, requires fewer insecticides to be applied to the crop.

Aquaculture, the farming of fish, shrimp, and algae, is closely associated with agriculture.

Biotechnology And Agriculture

The methods of biotechnology involved include genetic engineering (GE), genomics and bioinformatics, marker-assisted selection, micropropagation, tissue culture, cloning, artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and other technologies. In producing improved agricultural crops by genetic engineering, researchers aim for strains with the properties such as herbicide resistance, pest resistance, disease resistance, stress resistance and altered composition. All these properties will help farmers and large production companies to grow crops which will benefits in producing new products, increasing quality and quantity of existing products and improving ingredients of crops so that their production will ensure healthy and tasty food. For example, transgenic plants grew better under drought conditions and responded better when brought out of water stress. Next, such crops will allow producing potato starch with high amylopectin content for making paper, textiles and adhesives and rapeseed oil with greater erucic acid levels for plastic and industrial lubricants production.

Biotechnology is proving to be a vital complement to conventional agricultural research, improving breeding and conservation programmes and giving insights into understanding and controlling plant diseases. Aside from making conventional research more precise, GE also gives scientists the dramatic ability to transfer genetic material between organisms that normally cannot be combined through natural methods. Along with this newfound ability, however, comes new issues and concerns that need to be addressed before any large-scale adoption can take place. These include unintended transfer of transgenic genes, development of resistance by weeds, pests and diseases, and potential allergies from exotic proteins. Transparent and impartial evaluation of developed strains to answer these questions rather than rely on media hype will safeguard human health, protect the environment, and facilitate public acceptance of genetically engineered crops.

The A-Z of Global Warming: Deforestation

Deforestation is basically the loss or destruction of forest habitat, primarily as a result of the action of human beings.

It is the single largest source of land- use greenhouse gas emissions, and accounts for around 18 -20% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

We know from a previous article, trees and vegetation act as sinks or stores for carbon dioxide, one of the most important greenhouse gases. Stored carbon taken out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis through decades of growth is released back into the atmosphere as vegetation and trees are cut down and burnt, or, as unburned organic matter slowly dies. This process contributes to atmospheric CO2 levels.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) who are the leading source for information on the status of the worlds forests define forests as, "land with a tree canopy of greater than 10%, and an area of more than half a hectare". The organisation defines deforestation as, " the conversion of forest to another land use or long term reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold."

Land change and co2.

Land use changes are driven almost entirely by emissions caused through deforestation, which is highly concentrated in a few countries. Indonesia contributes approximately 30% of land use CO2 emissions with Brazil around 20%. It is estimated that about 80,000 acres or 32,000 hectares are being lost every day. This is the equivalent of about 117,000 km2, (45,173 sq miles) each year.

Total world rainforest cover is now about 6 million km2, (2,316,602 sq miles), which equates to about 5% of Earth's land surface. Only a few thousand years ago, rainforests covered about 12% of the worlds land surface, around 15.5 million km2, (6 million sq miles). A quick calculation reveals that if forest cover is being lost at the rate of 117,000 km2 a year, then it will only take in the region of 51 years for the world's rainforests to be destroyed! (6,000,000 divided by 117,000).

Destruction at this level would lead to the release of vast amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, further thickening the CO2 "blanket" that surrounds our planet and no doubt lead to an increased warming of the atmosphere.

Between 2000 and 2006 Brazil lost nearly 150,000km2, (57,915 sq miles) of forest, an area the size of Greece, and since 1970 over 600,000 km2, (231,660 sq miles) has been destroyed.

It is now estimated that almost 20% of the Amazon has been destroyed, which is considerably alarming when one considers that the Amazon rainforest represents about 50% of the worlds tropical rainforests.

There are various causes for deforestation, and they include, Cattle ranching, Activities of farmers, fires, mining and road construction and of course logging and commercial agriculture.

It's not entirely fair to blame the developing nations for all the deforestation however. Whilst countries like Brazil and Indonesia may be the main culprits now, up until the early 20th Century emissions of CO2 through land use changes came from developed nations. It's a natural step for developing nations to clear forest-land for agriculture and habitation. The fact is that as developed nations have already deforested many areas long ago, there is more pressure on developing nations to preserve what is left. Of course population growth is another major factor which will be discussed in a later chapter. Another significant point is that trees in topical forests typically hold on average about 50% more carbon per hectare than trees outside the tropics. Therefore deforestation in these areas causes greater amounts of CO2 to be released into the atmosphere than deforestation outside of the tropics.

Future of the forests.

Remarkably when talking about land use change emissions, countries such as the USA, Europe and China were in the year 2000 net absorbers of CO2 as a result of their aforestation (planting new forests) and reforestation (re establishing old forest areas) programs. However, the planting of one tree does not offset the damage caused by the removal of another, as trees absorb CO2 very slowly. It could take 100 years for a growing tree to recover all the CO2 released when a mature tree is cut down!. For this reason, carbon offset programs which suggest planting a tress to offset co2 produced are pretty worthless, due to the time it would take for that tree to remove co2 from the atmosphere.

There is some good news however, as in 2006 the Brazilian government announced a sharp drop in deforestation. Loss for the year 2005/6 was 13,100 km2, (5,057 sq miles) down more than 40% from the year before. Its too early to say whether this is a declining trend, or just one good year out of the pervious eight where deforestation levels were all in excess of 16,000 km2, (6,177 sq miles).

As the worlds forests are being destroyed, huge amounts of CO2 are being released back into the atmosphere. The forests that were once able to absorb and store this potent greenhouse gas, will no longer be standing which will push CO2 levels up higher, thereby contributing to the warming of Earth's climate.

Agriculture

Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and the raising of domesticated animals. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. The related practice of gardening is studied in horticulture.

Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties. Cultivation of crops on arable land and the pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In the past century a distinction has been made between sustainable agriculture and intensive farming. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming (and similar practices applied to the chicken) have similarly increased the output of meat. The more exotic varieties of agriculture include aquaculture and tree farming.

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, raw materials, legal and illegal drugs, and an assortment of ornamental or otherwise exotic products. In recent years plants have been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics,^[1] and pharmaceuticals. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Drugs include tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine, digitalis, curare, eugenol, reserpine, pyrethrins, taxol) and other useful materials such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the ornamental products.

The history of agriculture has played a major role in human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socio-economic change. Wealth-building and militaristic specializations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures are commonplace in societies which practice agriculture. So, too, are arts such as epic literature and monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in their society were freed to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists have long argued that the development of agriculture made civilization possible.

In 2007, an estimated 35 percent of the world's workers were employed in agriculture (from 42% in 1996). However, the relative significance of farming has dropped steadily since the beginning of industrialization, and in 2003 – for the first time in history – the services sector overtook agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide. Despite the fact that agriculture employs over one-third of the world's population, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products).

Buying Green Food on a Budget

One of the most basic things you can do for the environment is to buy foods that are produced in environmentally sound ways. Unfortunately, this can be quite expensive and the foods can be hard to find.

The main reason this can seem to be so hard is that people often limit themselves to the grocery stores, where organic foods are priced significantly higher than other foods. But your local grocery store may not be the best choice.

Find a local farmer's market. Not all of the food there will be organically produced, but you can talk to the people there and find out. As an added environmental benefit, most of the food will be locally grown.

You can also try a food co-op. Joining a co-op means that you will get whatever is grown at the time, rather than choosing what you want, but the produce will be organically and locally grown. These are not available in all communities, but are well worth looking into.

Another solution if you have the room, is to grow some of your own. The wonderful thing about having your own garden is that you choose exactly what goes into it. It's also a great way to teach children about where food comes from. And of course it is a nice bit of exercise.

You may also be able to find a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) program in your area. You can learn more about these programs at http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/csa/csa.shtml and search for ones in your area.

Finding good, organically produced meats is generally more difficult, especially if you don't want to pay too much extra. Some CSA programs do offer meat, but many will be strictly produce, and perhaps eggs.

One of the solutions is to cut back on meats. If you can eat vegetarian a couple times a week or even just once a week, you can save quite a bit on meat, which can make buying the better stuff less painful. Going all vegetarian isn't for everyone, but being partially vegetarian is a very realistic goal.

You can also join a buying club or try buying in bulk on your own. These can get you great discounts on the foods you need. You will want to pay close attention to what you are actually paying to ensure that you are getting the best possible prices.

In some areas, going organic and/or local is easier than it is in other areas. I live in California, where all kinds of organic produce is available. Other states it is much harder and much more expensive.

Choosing more environmentally friendly food options is better for you, your family and the environment. Sometimes it can even be sufficiently friendly to the budget that you start running out of excuses to not go organic.

Alarm Bells Ring For Spanish Real Estate

Owning a property in Spain - either as a holiday home or for full time living - has been an aspiration for many Europeans in the last twenty years, with Germany and the UK providing the most buyers.

But Spain's property market has hit some turbulence recently, with the Costa del Sol dropping from the favourite area to buy to least popular in just two years, leaving hundreds of thousands of holiday home owners vulnerable to a sharp drop in prices this year.

The Costa del Sol has been particularly hard hit as different negative factors came into play at around the same time - 'land grab' - where developers take land from existing owners with little recompense, world market jitters, and local corruption.

Another complication has hit the property market on the popular holiday island of Majorca. Plans have been put forward for more developments, and the local populations has successfully organised mass protest against development plans which they think will destroy much of the island's culture and heritage.

Majorca's economic base featured farming, livestock and agriculture before the 1960s. Before it became dependent upon tourism, Mallorca prided itself on being able to take care of itself without outside influence. The rising climate has made it hard to farm or raise livestock on the island. Limited water supplies make it difficult to maintain any kind of crop. The sparse amount of agriculture that is still done in Majorca is in an effort to keep up with the demand from tourists, and more development could spell disaster for the traditional way of life.

According to the 2005 census, the population of the city of Palma was 375,048. The population of the entire area was estimated to be 517,285; the 12th-largest urban area of Spain. Approximately half of the total population of Majorca lives in Palma, and it is feared that more developments will see Majorca turned into a concrete jungle.

Majorca started to develop as a holidays hot spot in the 1920's. Today, Majorca sees more than six million visitors each year, yet ninety-five percent of tourists concentrate in only five percent of its territory. Less developed areas of this elegant island are ripe for new development and prime property commands a great premium. It seems more people than ever before want to live on or invest in the island after taking their holidays in Majorca - but locals fear a doubling or trebling of the full time population in just a few years, placing a strain on the island's hospitals, schools and infrastructure, and vow to fight development plans.

A United Nations report highlights problems for both the Costa del Sol and Majorca, showing that local authorities are over dependent on new properties being built, with some city halls receiving over a quarter of their income from property related activity - a figure only sustainable by allowing more and more new developments, which eventually run contary to the wishes of the local populations.

The report says that there has been 'uncontrolled speculation for the last twenty years' and contributes to a poor housing situation for Spain's domestic market, with many developers preferring to concentrate on holiday villas and apartments to providing good standard housing for local people.

And it's local people in different regions of Spain who might change the way the property market works in the future, more for themselves than for outsiders.

The report says that the hardest hit sections of society in the Spanish property market are the young and the elderly, women, gypsies and the disabled - and as Mallorca has seen people are pushing housing policy higher up the political agenda.

The UN report also says that some fifteen per cent of Spain's apartments lie empty, even after discounting overseas owners.

'The amount of housing that isn't occupied might look alarming', comments a Mallorca internet site, 'But this isn't unusual. The same could be said of London, or among the Mediterranean countries Malta for example.'

Real estate developers in Spain and the Spanish islands face an uncertain 2008, as new developments are scrutinised more before being given planning consent, and an economic downturn threatens to drop the number of new buyers from Germany and the United Kingdom.